Research and Background on Research Methodology

Methodology can be defined as the analysis of rules of methods, techniques and regulations. The methodological analysis involves the systematic survey of methods. Which are applied to analyse the survey or a specific undertaking. To make the survey planned and increase the trusty in the survey, the different of the methodological analysis can be accepted in the planned of the survey or frame of the survey. The research methodological analysis affecting the aggregation of theory, thought or construct of the survey, comparison of the survey that have different of the attack and single methods that have different of the attack and single methods that are conduced when the research is being performed. These mean that research methodological analysis was the bosom of the survey. It is a peculiar or set of processs. Research methodological analysis besides can be defined as the system of roll uping informations for surveies project. There are two manner of roll uping the information, either theoretical or practical research. Theoretical research is a procedure of placing a attention set of connections within a subject and the demoing how they fit together or related to the topic. For the practical research is, associating to, governed by or acquired through pattern or action, instead than theory, guess, or thoughts, by free lexicon ( hypertext transfer protocol: //www.thefreedictionary.com/practical ) . Harmonizing to M S Sridhar, ( October 17, 2010 ) says that research methodological analysis is a scientific discipline of analyzing how research is done scientifically. A manner to consistently work out the research job by logically following assorted stairss. Methodology aid to understand non merely the merchandises of scientific enquiry but the procedure itself. Harmonizing to S M Sindhar ( October 17, 2010 ) besides tell about the benefits of making the methodological analysis of research. The benefits are: Promotion of wealth of human cognition. Tool to the trade to transport out research ; provide tools to look at things in life objectively. Develop a critical and scientific height, disciplined thought or a ‘bent of head ‘ to detect objectively. Enriches practician and his pattern ; provide chance to analyze a topic in deepness ; enable the research workers to do intelligent determinations ; understand the stuffs which no other lend of work can fit. As consumers of research end product helps to instill the ability to measure and utilize consequences of earlier research with sensible assurance and take rational determinations. Making research is the best manner to larn to read and believe critically. For the societal scientific disciplines are methodologically diverse utilizing qualitative, quantitative and assorted method attacks. Qualitative information is highly varied in nature. It includes virtually any information that can be captured that is non numerical in nature. There is the type of qualitative informations: In-depth interviews Direct observation Written paperss Quantitative information is the term that used to depict a type of information that can be countered or expressed numerically. This type of informations collected in experiments, manipulated and statistically analyzed. To stand for the quantitative information is in graphs, histograms, charts and tabular arraies. Assorted method in research is the combine of quantitative and qualitative informations. In the survey consequences subsequently, there will be the combine of the two informations, the information from the qualitative informations and informations from the quantitative information. It besides can supply more comprehensive replies to research inquiries. In the instance of research ‘Reading wonts among pupil in Faculty of Information Management ‘ , some method is used consistently to do the consequences of the hypothesis can be more clarify. In this survey, a batch of information was gathered from two types of beginnings which are printed and electronic beginnings. The printed stuffs can be easy found in Perpustakaan Tun Abdul Razak PTAR, Puncak Perdana Library, and electronic beginnings can be easy happen utilizing internet or any database. From these beginnings, a batch of information about this article ‘Reading ‘ easy to be found but it difficult to happen when the rubric focused to the specific range, which is ‘Reading wonts ‘ , or ‘Reading wonts among University pupils ‘ and ‘reading wonts among pupils ‘ . So, I forced to broad range to finish this survey. 3.1 TYPE OF RESEARCH AND RESEARCH DESIGN In this range will stating about the type of the research and the research design that will be use in this survey. Here will be the particular of the type of the research and the research design to do others easy to cognize about this survey. 3.1.1 TYPE OF RESEARCH Harmonizing to Department of Health and Human Service ( DHHS ) , ( February, 2009 ) says that research wasaˆÂ ¦ . â€Å" a systematic probe, including research development, proving and rating, designed to develop or lend to generalise cognition. Activities which meet this definition constitute research for intent of this policy whether or non they are conducted or supported under a plan which is considered research for other a plan which is considered research for other intents. For illustration, some presentation and service plan may include research activities ; hypertext transfer protocol: //www.hhs.gov/ohrp/humansubject/guidance/45cfr46.htm # 46.102. † However, harmonizing to University Research Council, Nipissing University, ( January 29, 2008 ) says that research is any original and systematic probe undertaken in order to increase cognition and apprehension and to set up facts and rules. It comprises the creative activity of thoughts and coevals of cognition that lead to new and significant improved penetrations and/or development of new stuffs, devices, merchandises, and processes. It should hold the potencies to bring forth consequences that are sufficiently relevant to increase cognition. Good brooding enquiry produces theories and hypothesis and benefits ay rational effort to analyse facts and phenomena. This hunt for single facts or informations requires an open-ended inquiry for which is there no ready reply. Datas are gathered through experiments, studies or other methodological analysiss. So, the research significance is the original plants and systematic probe on cognition by person who have the involvement to make the research. It is besides to increase cognition and understanding on a topic. There are two type of research. However, research can be classified by intent or by method. If the research by intent, it have two classs, basic research and applied research. If the research by method, there are besides have two classs, deductive research and inductive research. In this survey of ‘reading wonts among pupil in Faculty of Information Management ‘ can be classs as applied research because this survey utilizing the basic research to increase the past theories, cognition and methods to work outing this survey. 3.1.2 RESEARCH DESIGN Research design is a model or design for carry oning the research undertaking. Harmonizing to the instruction lexicon, ( Jan 14, 2009 ) , research design is a program sketching how information is to be gathered for an appraisal or rating that includes placing the informations assemblage methods, the instruments to be used or created, how to instrument will be administrated, and how the information will be organized and analyze. There are few constituents of research design. It is: Specify the information needed. Design the exploratory, descriptive, and caused stages of the research. Stipulate the measuring and grading processs. Construct the pretest a questionnaire or appropriate signifier for informations aggregation. Stipulate the sampling procedure Develop a program of informations analysis There are two type of research design. It is quantitative research design and qualitative research design. In the quantitative research design, there are three constituent of quantitative research design. It is descriptive research, experimental research, and Quasi-experimental research. For the qualitative research design besides have three constituents in it. It is historical research, ethnographic research and instance surveies research. So, the research design is the general program on how research goes about replying research inquiry. This research on ‘reading wonts among pupil in Faculty of information direction ‘ will utilize on descriptive research because this type of research can accurately portrays the state of affairs of pupil perceptual experience on reading wonts among pupil in Faculty of Information Management. Descriptive research phenomena as they exist and it will analyze by and large take natural informations and sum up it in a functional signifier. This type of research design that involve doing careful description of the state of affairs of the reading wonts. It is necessary to hold clear image of the state of affairs how the information should be collected and sum up. The study design conducted indiscriminately to the pupils in Faculty of Information Management semester five and six merely. However, there are four classs in module of Information Management. It is IM221 ( Library Science Management ) , IM221 ( System Management ) , IM222 ( Records Management ) , and IM223 ( Resource Center Management ) for semester five and six. These types of pupil normally know about reading and reading wonts mean in finishing the surveies. The suggestion from them can better reading wonts among pupil and besides can better the stuffs in library that can increase reading wonts among pupil in Faculty of Information Management. The study on pupils will assist the lector, pupil and librarian in Faculty of Information Management to increase the reading wonts and besides foster the spirit of reading among pupils. The research will utilize questionnaire to acquire back the feedback from the pupil. The questionnaire is a research tool that consists of a series of inquiries defined by the research workers. From the questionnaire, the research workers can cognize and the research besides can make the summarize on the research. The questionnaire will be distributed among pupil in Faculty of Information Management, UITM Puncak Perdana. In module of Information Management, there are four classs, which are IM220 ( Library Science Management ) , IM221 ( System Management ) , IM222 ( Records Management ) , and IM223 ( Resource Center Management ) . From 100 sets of questionnaire, 25 sets will be distributed for each class. The distribution of the questionnaire will take the topographic point in the country of Faculty of Information Management, UITM campus Puncak Perdana, Shah Alam. The questionnaire will be collected by custodies of me as a research worker. 3.1.3 THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE Figure1: Theoretical position: reading wonts, reading stuffs, frequence of reading, sum of stuffs in reading, and reading stuffs types harmonizing to gender. Independent Variable: Dependent Variable: Reading stuffs Reading Habits Frequency of reading Sum of stuffs in reading Factor influence reading wonts 3.2 VARIABLE In the research works, there are two type of variable that a normally usage. It is dependent variable and independent variable. Dependent variable is the use or introduces the independent variable. This sort of variable is depending on itself. The independent variable is the variable that needs the dependant variable to stand. Independent variable can non stand itself. This conceptual model indicates the relationship which consists of the dependent and independent variables. This model denotes the four variables which causes to individual variable which were affected by the independent variable. Reading wonts is dependent variable, the discrepancy in which to be explained by the four independent variables which are reading stuffs, frequence of reading, sum of stuff in reading, and reading stuffs types harmonizing to gender. The independent variables in this instance are reading stuffs, frequence of reading, sum of stuff in reading, and reading stuffs types harmonizing to gender. Therefore, it is really of import of reading wonts for pupils. On the other manus, the dependent variable is the reading wonts. It can be seen clearly that the independent variables have influenced the dependant variable. This research indicate and lucubrate clearly that the reading stuffs, frequence of reading, sum of stuffs in reading, and reading stuffs types harmonizing to gender among pupil as an independent variables that will hold an consequence and supported to reading wonts among pupil as a dependent variables. Reading wonts Reading wonts is the behaviour of the pupil in their reading. It is about the continued and regularly reading the stuff they like to read. Example, the pupil read the newspaper on a regular basis. Reading stuffs Reading stuff is the stuff that the pupil return and like to read, but the stuffs they read for reading wonts is the stuffs that they read on a regular basis. Example, newspapers, magazines, cartoon strips, and novels. However, they must depict what name or types of newspapers, magazines, cartoon strips, and novels they frequently to read. Frequency of reading Frequency of reading is how frequent the pupil read the stuffs. How much clip they spend in their reading every twenty-four hours. Sum of stuff in reading Sum of stuffs in reading is the Numberss of stuffs they take to read in a twenty-four hours. Means that do the pupil refer to take more than one stuffs in a twenty-four hours for their reading wonts. Factor influence reading wonts In the reading wonts there must be the factors that influence people or pupil to read. Usually pupil reading because they want to complete their assignment and plants and they besides influence by their household and friends. There are ever holding influence why people or pupil read and why they take the stuffs as their reading wonts. 3.3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Research methodological analysis is the manner that shows the aggregation of informations for the research undertaking. In this subdivision would state about the type of informations and aggregation methods, the population for this survey, and the sampling design for this survey. 3.3.1 PURPOSE OF RESEARCH To make or to get down the research, the research workers need to cognize what capable that have meet his or her involvement to pull him or her to make the research. Then, there besides must hold the intent of making the research. This is the first measure to make a research, must cognize the ground why the research workers do the research. There is few intent of the research workers do the research. First intent is account. Every research workers need to cognize the intent of the research that he or she making. The research workers do the research because they want to increase the cognition and develop the new cognition that already has done by the past research workers. So, to make the research is like to explicate on the topic that has being chosen to make. The research workers must explicate why the research must be conducted and explicate his or her involvement on the topic that they have chosen to be their research. The 2nd intent is anticipation. Doing research is for the research workers make the anticipation. Research is assisting the research workers to measure the state of affairs and give the prognosis what will go on in the hereafter. Type of the information that has high demand in the market now is the anticipation of new merchandise. These besides use to do anticipation that what will go on in the hereafter. This will do the research more interested by the research workers in the hereafter. The 3rd intent of making research is discovery. Making research like the research workers found something that truly of import and this information will be so valuable in the hereafter. That why research making the research. It is to detect new thought, new cognition, and besides increase the cognition that has being done by the past research workers. The last intent of making the research is hypothesis. Making the research, the research workers must cognize and make the hypothesis of their research. The research workers should cognize the hypothesis of the research that he or she conducted. For this survey ‘reading wonts among pupil in Faculty of Information Management ‘ is utilizing the applied research. So, here the intent of the applied research, proving theories, generates the survey, use the survey in the existent universes, and address more than merely the abstract rules. The hypothesis of this survey is promoting pupils to read and do reading as their wonts. After administering the questionnaire and do the analysis of the questionnaire, this survey can be applied by the existent universes as the mention. 3.3.2 TYPE OF DATA AND DATA COLLECTION METHOD There are two types of informations that normally use in research plant. It is quantitative informations and qualitative informations. Quantitative information is in the numerical information. The information can be countered and showed in the numerical information. Normally this sort of informations collected in experiments, statistical analyzes and manipulated. For the qualitative information is sort of informations that non in numerical informations. It is much more than words and text. Normally, it showed the exposure, picture, sound recordings and so on. This sort of informations can be collected by making interview, direct observation, and written papers. The survey ‘reading wonts among pupil in Faculty of Information Management ‘ utilizing the quantitative information. The information for this survey will be collected by distribute the questionnaire. In this questionnaire there must be the inquiry inquiring the respondent about the survey. From the informations that collected by questionnaire, I can acquire the reply about the survey I am making. 3.3.3 Population Population in research plant is stating about the group of people that where the topic that the research workers taking. The group besides will stand for the plants of the research workers. Before the research workers set the population for his or her research, the research workers must cognize about the community that he or she wants to go his or her population. The characters of the community besides must be known. The community that will became the population in the research works besides must hold experience and cognition about the research that the research workers conduct. The population besides is a group of the possible participants that will go the researcher population so that the research workers can generalise the consequences for his or her survey. The population of the research for the survey ‘reading wonts among pupil in Faculty of Information Management ‘ is the pupil from semester five and six in the Faculty if Information Management. But, the pupils as the population in this survey come from the 4 classs in the Faculty of Information Management. The four classs is IM220 ( Library Science Management ) , IM221 ( System Management ) , IM222 ( Records Management ) , and IM223 ( Resource Center Management ) . The selected inquiry will be give one questionnaire and they have to finish the questionnaire. The pupils that will be selected are indiscriminately in the country of pupil semester five and six from the four classs. The feedback that given by the respondent will give the consequence to the survey that conducted. 3.3.4 SAMPLING DESIGN Sampling design of the research works is one of the procedure, action or technique in the choosing of the sample that the researcher demand to make to acquire the information from the population that he or her mark as the respondent of his or her survey. These samplings besides refer to the communities that represent the information for the survey from the hall community. This mean that there will be some of the community will be taking to be the respondent of the research. The research workers need to make the sampling design to do the decision from the sample that on the population or from the questionnaire that have been distribute. From the trying design besides the research workers would acquire the reply for his or her research. Sampling design is of import because the sampling can demo the mark of the research workers on the survey. In this research, the simple random sampling has been used. Selected a group of the topic ( a sample ) and for the survey from the larger group ( a population ) is one of the simple random trying design in the basic technique. Each individual in the population will be selected as the mark respondent. In the conceptual, simple random sampling was the simplest of the sampling technique. It is non necessitate a big population. In the simple random sample, the research workers must take one of the people in the population and from that, there must non hold any order to take a specific person. Here mean that, there no specific person but choose the individual in the population indiscriminately. Exploitation and make the sampling design have the advantage. The advantage of making the trying design is it is easy, simple and can be apply in the little population. However, there are disadvantages making this trying design. It is the research worker demand to name the point and individual in a population before making the distribution of questionnaire so the research workers need to make the distribution work in the big population harmonizing to what he or she listed in the sampling design. In this survey of ‘reading wonts among pupil in Faculty of Information Management ‘ , the questionnaire will be distributed indiscriminately to the pupil on Faculty of Information Management, UITM Puncak Perdana, for the four classs which is IM220 ( Library Science Management ) , IM221 ( System Management ) , IM222 ( Records Management ) , and IM223 ( Resource Center Management ) . There are 80 questionnaire will be distributed indiscriminately to the pupil in Faculty of Information Management and the pupil that have been choose was pupil from semester five and six merely. 3.4 INSTRUMENT DEVELOPMENT The instrument is used to mensurating some of the quality or the ability of the topic or the research works. The intent of the instrument is to assist the research workers to do the sampling of the survey to acquire the information for the survey. An instrument can be a trial, signifier, interview, checklist, and a set of classs. Normally in research plants they use two of this instrument, questionnaire or interview. Questionnaire is the inquiry that have stated by the research workers in the documents and this inquiry must be fill wholly by the respondent. The questionnaire is the open-ended inquiries. Interview is when the research workers go run into person that a professional in the topic that research workers do and making the interview by face-to-face. The questionnaire is the simple manner to administer the study to the population that has been chooses by the research workers. The questionnaire will be giving and collected by manus by the research workers itself. It is different in making interview study. The research workers need to travel personally making the interview and normally the individual that being interviewed must be professional in the field that the research workers research. The format questionnaire can act upon the quality of informations collected, but the order of the points in the questionnaire can act upon the reply from the response given. The questionnaire must be stick to the intent of the topic, the topic that have been taking, and the aim of the research. The questionnaire strategically composed utilizing assorted inquiries formats, it is unfastened inquiry and close inquiry. Giving the questionnaire to the respondent is the appropriate for this sort of research which is needed the sentiment and perceptual experience from the respondents on the research subject which is ‘reading wonts among pupil in Faculty of Information Management ‘ . The questionnaire content three ( 3 ) parts focused on specific countries. The countries of the probe focal point on: answering involvement in reading, respondent reading behaviours, and answering sentiment. Each of the subdivision will be described below: Part A: Demographic This subdivision will state about the characters of the respondents that have being chosen. Part B: Answering Interest IN READING In this subdivision consist of inquiry on the questionnaire is about the involvement of the pupil in the stuffs the ever read, the stuff that the pupil choose to read as their reading wonts, and why they choose the stuffs as their wonts in reading. Part C: RESPONDENT READING BEHAVIORS Answering reading behaviours tell about the times the pupil refer to do the reading, where the topographic point the pupil want to read normally, type of the stuff the pupil refer to read, the type of the entree stuff the pupil choose to read, and how many stuffs the pupil read in a hebdomad. Part D: Answering Opinion This subdivision ask the sentiment of the pupil on the bash they agree or disagree with the stuffs they choose can assist them in survey, do the reading spring or increase their cognition and experience, and what the pupil sentiment about the reading wonts and do the reading wonts can assist to determining the personalities of the pupil. 3.5 DATA COLLECTION Data aggregation is the procedure where the research workers roll uping the information from the respondent that being take either the research workers distribute the questionnaire or interview. Data aggregation besides the manner of colleting the information for the usage in the assorted of survey or doing determination in some state of affairs. Data aggregation is the of import component in the research survey. Data aggregation can be made in several ways, either the research workers choose to utilize the distribution of questionnaire, interview, or direct observation. To be after the informations aggregation the research workers must carefully believe on the inquiry that he or she will set in the questionnaire or in the interview because the reply or the consequence from the questionnaire and the interview will give impact to the information analysis and the research the terminal of it. The research workers besides must believe how to form the information, the inquiry and information subsequently and before the distribution of questionnaire and interview. The research workers should believe in this information aggregation, what inquiry or information should he or she put and how much the information the research workers should roll up. In the informations aggregation the research workers should set the information about the sum of the participant that will be in the research, feature of the research, type of the participants, demographic informations and what the research privation to make. All the informations aggregation must associate to the research. To roll up the information for the research, the research workers must utilize this type of informations aggregation method. It is sentiment study, questionnaire, single interview and group interview, simulation, and direct observation. But, normally the celebrated method in the information aggregation is utilizing the questionnaire and interviews. It is easy to utilize and faster to acquire the informations feedback. To take the method for the informations aggregation, the research workers must cognize the handiness, dependability and cogency. Availability is about the inquiry that the research workers want to utilize in the questionnaire or in the interview, is it the inquiry is available and is it the information from the consequence subsequently is available to the research. Making the research works, the research must hold the dependability and the cogency. If non there must be job in the research works. In this survey ‘reading wonts among pupil of Faculty of Information Management ‘ the research workers use the questionnaire in the information aggregation. For the informations aggregation, in the questionnaire, the research workers divide inquiry into four subdivisions harmonizing to the of import of the surveies. The four subdivisions is demographic, answering involvement in reading, answering behaviours and the last subdivision is answering sentiment. In the questionnaire, there are parts that I do the inquiry utilizing the likert grading. Likert grading is the popular format in the research questionnaire. For this survey, I ‘m utilizing the disposal likert grading, it is each respondent is asked to rate the inquiry have been inquiring in the questionnaire harmonizing the sentiment of the respondent. Example of the disposal likert grading is figure 1 until 5, figure 1 refer to the strongly disagree and figure 5 refer to the strongly agree. In this survey besides have the inquiry inquiring about the sentiment of the respondent on the topic that I take to be his or her surveies. Besides, in the questionnaire, I ‘m inquiring on the behaviour of the respondent about the survey that I conduct. Using the questionnaire in these surveies has the advantages and disadvantages. The advantage is utilizing the questionnaire, the collected informations faster because I can give to the respondent by manus and acquire feedback besides by manus. But, the disadvantage is some of the respondent will make non desire to reply the questionnaire and if they want to reply, sometimes they do non reply the inquiry. 3.6 DATA ANALYSIS After the research workers collect the information, the research workers must making the informations analyze to analysis the information that have been get by the research workers. The information analysis is the procedure on to measure the informations that have been collected. There are three plants have to be considered in the information analysis, it is data readying, descriptive statistics, and illative statistics. Datas that have been get from the respondent must be prepare to analyse it. In this readying of the informations, the respondent must make the checking works, reexamine the information for the truth of the informations, altering the information, and develop the informations and certification the construction of the informations utilizing the assorted actions, either utilizing the computing machines or manual. Descriptive statistic is used to give the basic visual on the information in the survey. In this descriptive statistic, the action that been taken is making the simple analysis and simple sample of the steps. In this action, there must already hold the simple graph that shows the analysis from the information that have been collected. The last of the plants in the information analysis that research workers should see is the illative statistic. In this works the research workers do the decision of the informations that the research workers have been prepare, and analyse it in the descriptive statistic. In this subdivision besides the research worker do the hypothesis works. However, the research workers must cognize about the informations methods of the information analysis that the research workers will used. Is it the informations that the research workers collected is more on the qualitative informations or in quantitative informations. In this survey ‘reading wonts among pupil in Faculty of Information Management ‘ , I am utilizing the SPSS ( Statistical Package for the Social Sciences ) . SPSS is the characteristic that are truly of import to analyse the statistic for the societal research. 3.7 Decision For the decision, the research methodological analysis is stating about the method that being used in the research works by the research workers to complete the thesis. In this chapter, there must be about the type of research that research workers used, research design for this surveies, the variable of the surveies, research method have to used to finish this research works, the informations aggregation, and the information analysis that must make in this research. In this chapter will state briefly about the research method that must be used before continue to another chapter that more profoundly about this surveies.

Discussions of race and community relations in all facets of American life are often limited to generalized attitudes that are interracial

Discussions of race and community relations in all facets of American life are often limited to generalized attitudes that are at base, interracial. That is to say, the dominant, or white culture, sets standards for the perceived subordinate culture. The expectation is that all cultures that make up the United States must adhere to what is American in order to benefit from the promises of America and its Constitution, that of liberty and prosperity. To complicate matters, the dominant culture also dictates who reaps the benefits of Americanism, despite behavior. Throughout American history there have been many folks who challenge such notions for the sake of a single cause. Whether it is the abolition of slavery, women's suffrage, or education and housing reform, protest, or the ability of an oppressed group to say â€Å"no† to injustice and lack of choice grounded this nation. While on the surface such protests are commendable and admirable, an undercurrent exists that is usually left unchecked. Freedom to earn money and prosper as well as own land is within ones rights as an American that have been upheld as â€Å"self-evident. What complicates such a simplistic and arguably accessible accomplishment is that one group determines how far another group can go, the extent its members can be successful. This notion of superiority is seen within cultures in this country as well. When discussing the history of Blacks in America, the legacy of slavery must be acknowledged as a constant line feeding into ideas of superiority. Such ideas permeate attitudes of whites towards blacks, yet ironically; it also nourishes beliefs within the black community and causes the drawing of class distinctions. Adopting the attitudes and beliefs of ones oppressors and pinning such expectations –not being open to examining and maintaining ones own culture in the midst of or in spite of a dominant culture contributes to the holding back of progress. It can be construed that uplifting the race, based on white paternalistic notions of respectability serves a very limited purpose. Ignoring or attempting to eradicate free black Americans relatively young past in order to accept and uphold standards designed for another culture, namely the dominant one, only serves to polarize an already fragmented culture. Since before freedom, free blacks in the North established class lines comparable to their white counterparts. There was a clear black aristocracy made up of well-educated, wealthy and professional blacks. Many determined that the closer they were to white culture the more superior, much like the stratification that existed on slave plantations when the slaves who possessed the lighter complexions found themselves working closer to the master and his family. Such slaves often experienced privileges that the darker-skinned slaves could not even imagine. The legacy of slavery is most prevalent as class distinctions are drawn among blacks. Where this is seen even more, ironically at time just a half-century beyond slavery, is during the Great Migration. Many established northern blacks saw themselves as successful, having achieved middle class status. While working on uplifting the race to a level of respectability, that is, a most acceptable group among middle class whites, they adhered to faith, hope, and charity. Faith occurred in the form of the church, hope in the manner in which many experienced prosperity, and charity, that which was offered the less fortunate migrants fresh from the cotton fields, who needed to be groomed for proper behavior. Even with faith, hope, and charity, like their white counterparts, the sense of superiority among the established black community made it clear that only a select few would reap the benefits of the liberty and prosperity promised to all. Eastern cities like Washington, DC had a clear distinction between free blacks and the black aristocracy. The lines were drawn with regard to churches one attended, clubs in which one belonged, and neighborhoods where one could purchase homes. Likewise, whites, too, determined class lines based on what they deemed appropriate behavior of the Negro. For example, in 1916 Mary Church Terrell, daughter of one of America's first black millionaires, was refused service at a drug store soda fountain. She and her husband formally protested to the store manager, who immediately apologized for the clerk and said, â€Å"We do not care to serve people of any race at our fountain who are not genteel, but such objection certainly could not obtain against your wife, yourself and any high class colored person† (Gatewood 67). Clearly for some whites the aristocrat of color warranted different and better treatment than did ordinary blacks. In black communities throughout the US, old established families occupied a position of aristocracy. As a black observer noted, â€Å"almost all communities possess a few thoroughbred families who glory in lineal ancestry and carry wherever they go the tone and flavor of unconscious refinement, pride, that manifest their culture, achievement, behavior, and ancestry. Family trees genealogical charts often included an assortment of European noblemen, white American statesmen, African kings, and Indian Chieftains. Even Chicago where there is nothing old, I found the same spirit† (Higgenbotham 70). In Chicago the black population in 1880 was 6480 and increased seven-fold by 1910. There were groups called the 400, the upper 10's, and the high-toned people. (Higgenbotham 117). Stratification in black society, one Chicago editor noted was â€Å"proceeding along its natural course exactly analogous, or at least similar to, the formation of social groups of the white race in this country† (Gatewood 124). The Great Migration forced the established Black community in Chicago to make major adjustments and accommodations. Historically, black churches and civic groups had, like their counterparts in the South, resisted any involvement in social issues. The arrival of hundreds of thousands of migrants, however, simply could not be ignored; churches, being African- Americans richest and most influential institutions, were quickly called to action in the effort to help migrants properly adjust themselves to life in Chicago. Blacks already living in Chicago, Old Settlers were aware of the implications of the Great Migration. The Old Settlers strove to establish respect from whites and a sense of equality within the city's socio-economics system. With the arrival of southern blacks, most of whom were unfamiliar with urban mores, the Old Settlers feared that the progress they had achieved would be dashed. They feared that all whites would equate all blacks with the rural and uneducated migrants. Moreover, the Old Settlers realized the enormous strains placed on many of the migrants who arrived lacking a place to live or a sense of direction in the achievement of personal stability. This is where the church and civic organizations played a big role in offering shelter, food, and clothes to the migrants until they could do for themselves. These organizations provided services for migrants, such as assisting them in obtaining a job. They did it for charity yet the self-interest; yet capitalism was ever present. Borrowing from ideologies of Booker T. Washington and W. E. B. DuBois, the church and civic groups adopted the lifting as we climb approach. For men it was good for business, for the women, status was most crucial so they were motivated by position in the community to be charitable. This is many ways mimics the white progressives whose Christian-based affect was prevalent in their charitable work. Likewise, a certain sense of hypocrisy and fear of association influenced the intentions and efforts to Americanize, or make the migrants Chicagoans, the people they were assisting, often resulted in a miscarriage of sensitivity to the values of an established culture. Gwendolyn Wright in her text Building the Dream offers that such reformers â€Å"did bring much genuine concern, but they brought moralistic middle-class biases to their crusade† (Wright 129). This attitude had an impact on the housing issue for blacks in Chicago as lines were drawn, gates were built, and people were shut out. For so many, Chicago was the land of promise and potential. The dream of liberty and prosperity seemed very close at hand as hopeful migrants left their homes in the Deep South. They met many established Blacks in Northern urban centers who â€Å"visualized the progress of their race in terms of education, personal economic success, judicious political action, and co-operation with powerful and influential white people† (Drake 51). From 1890 to 1920 economic, political, and social lives of blacks in Chicago underwent tremendous transformation. (Knupfer 30). It was believed that the influx of blacks had â€Å"Negroes rapidly replacing foreigners as Chicago's problem† (Drake 60). Given this information, advancing the race became an issue and many aristocratic and middle-class blacks felt the dichotomy of being black in America much like their foreign counterparts; allegiance to an ethnic group as well as to America. The result of this duality lead to the class divisions reminiscent of the days of slavery. The select few living life much like the whites or aspiring to do so and many left behind eating the scraps, when they could get them.

African American Theatre Essay

Harlem Renaissance was the name of the African American cultural movement that gained its popularity in the 1920s and early 1930s. It got its name because it took its roots in Harlem of New York, an area which had been always associated with the African American inhabitants. It emerged toward the end of World War I in 1918, blossomed in the mid- to late 1920s, and then faded in the mid-1930s (Encarta, 2006). Harlem Renaissance as a movement attracted serious attention of the publishers to the African American cultural phenomena. It was the starting point to consider the African American art and literature to be a substantial part of the entire American culture. It attracted serious attention of the American nation to the culture of the huge part of American citizens, African Americans. It was initially a literature movement but it was also related to the African American music, theatre, art and politics. Harlem Renaissance emerged in the early 20’s of the 20th century, during a period of serious political, social and economic upheavals in the African American community. There were several social and political factors which gave the basis for the raise of the African American culture. The end of the Civil War (1861-1865) created specific attitude towards African Americans. They gained new opportunities for development of their culture; they got access to the proper education, they got qualitatively new self esteem and self respect. They got equal rights guaranteed by the Declaration of the Independence which stated the basis of the American society, â€Å"all men are created equal†. The Great Migration gave hundreds of thousands black Americans an opportunity to move from the from an economically depressed rural South to industrial cities of the North to take advantages of the employment opportunities created by World War I. Harlem became the place of settlement for educated and socially conscious blacks. It developed into the political and cultural centre of the black Americans. â€Å"Equally important, during the 1910s a new political agenda advocating racial equality arose in the African American community, particularly in its growing middle class. Championing the agenda were black historian and sociologist W. E. B. Du Bois and the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), which was founded in 1909 to advance the rights of blacks. This agenda was also reflected in the efforts of Jamaican-born black nationalist Marcus Garvey, whose â€Å"Back to Africa† movement inspired racial pride among blacks in the United States. † (Encarta, 2006). Harlem Renaissance was the most creative period in African-American cultural life which influenced greatly the entire American culture. It impacted the American culture, American social life and race relations in the United States. It was a period of flourishing of artistic expression and cultural activity. The interracial relations in the United States found their new manifestation during the Harlem Renaissance. The rise of the black culture would be impossible without the recognition of it by the representatives of the white American community. â€Å"White authors writing about African-Americans; white patrons and supporters of the Harlem Renaissance; white publishers, producers, and booking agents; white critics and promoters-these all influenced African-American culture for better or worse. A closely related subject is the interaction between blacks and whites: most often black artists reacting with white publishers, promoters, and critics; but also the more complex interaction between the black intelligentsia and black writers and white publishers and intellectuals. Both W. E. B. Du Bois and James Weldon Johnson were black civil rights leaders, novelists, and poets in their own right, and both published, promoted, and critiqued the work of black artists and writers. Carl Van Vechten, a white novelist, wrote a major Harlem novel of the period and also served as a patron and promoter of black literature, art, and music, and as a documenter of the Harlem Renaissance. † (Cary D. Wintz, Paul Finkelman, 2004). During the 20’s Harlem became the center of the black culture rise. The unprecedented attention was attracted to Harlem due to its uniqueness as a world center of the black culture, culture being developed on the principles of freedom. The period of Harlem Renaissance came between the Emancipation Proclamation of 1862 and the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960’s. â€Å"The term â€Å"Renaissance† might be considered a misnomer for the Harlem Renaissance because it was more of a birth than a rebirth. Its artistic production was based upon a powerful sense of intense race consciousness and pride in black heritage and community. † (Patricia Flynn, 2006). It was impossible to promote the black culture before the period known as Harlem Renaissance. The American society had not got rid of the racial prejudices, segregation etc. Jim Crow laws created the obstacles for the full scale integration of the American blacks into the society and consequently stopped the cultural development of the African Americans. The Ku Klux Klan in the South promoted the racial segregation. The violent nature of the Ku Klux Klan and similar groups tried to renew the gloomy traditions of slavery. The legislation of the South differed greatly from that of North and Harlem of New York symbolized the freedom, an American dream for African Americans. Harlem of New York City became the area of accommodation for the African Americans moving from the South. â€Å"As Southern blacks moved into the area, a power struggle developed between white and black capital. Whites deserted Harlem and prices of property fell. Blacks bought up the properties. By the 1920’s, the two square mile area between Eighth Avenue (West) and Fifth Avenue(East), and 125th Street North to 145th Street held 200,000 blacks. † (Patricia Flynn, 2006). During the World War I black soldiers in Europe recognized the interest to the traditional black music jazz. They started realizing their African American cultural heritage. The war had created a demand for workers. The image of proud and independent â€Å"New Negro† in black community replaced the comic image of the plantation slave created by the white culture. One of the leading black philosophers who called African Americans to recognize the pride for their African heritage was Alain Locke. â€Å"Alain Locke was probably the foremost spokesman for artists and writers of the Harlem Renaissance. He was highly educated as a philosopher at Harvard University, and the first black American Rhodes Scholar (1907-1910). He chaired the Philosophy Department at Howard University. His theories of black art encouraged black artists to recognize and incorporate their African heritage within their work. He powerfully wrote and lectured that African artistic heritage was at the center of the black experience. African art had made a contribution to modern art in Europe, and it should have an even deeper and more historical meaning to black artists in America. Locke felt that black artists needed to be liberated, free to express their heritage. † (Patricia Flynn, 2006). Alain Locke organized the financial support of the African American artists. This financial support was one of the most controversial issues of Harlem Renaissance. On one hand the philosophic ideas of the black self identity as opposed to the white one was the core of the philosophy of Harlem Renaissance and on the other hand the financial aid came from the white philanthropists, who were the representatives of the white culture.

How does Technology Affect the Law, How does the Law Affect Technology Essay - 1

How does Technology Affect the Law, How does the Law Affect Technology - Essay Example The need for regulating activities and the hold of something that bears to the extent between what is legal and what is not yields the amalgamation of all these features of our day-to-day lives. It affects us to extents further than we are consciously aware of. The popularity of search engines for example opens up a number of disputes that directly involves different areas of the law. It is almost inconceivable these days to imagine a life without search engines. The fame and continued success of Google alone is a testament to this. It enables us to access almost anything within a split second. Google has also even become a verb which indicates searching in your name and peeking what the engine has rendered. This alone gives a wider perspective on what this one feature of the internet has permitted its users to benefit from. This consequently leads to a mature realization upon scrutiny. An objective overview shows that there had been many discussions regarding laws pertaining to contract, consumer protection, trademark, property, reference, patent, copyright and many others. The most logical resolution to the regulation of search engines necessitates a better comprehension of a structure. There is a failure in addressing the different claims in terms of legality in reference to what the courts and the congress has provided for these claims. The regulation of these engines initiated debates that differ between the call for a need of a stricter agency regulation or free market. Some more conventional scholars argue that it is better to provide restrictions to limit the level of availability of data while the other argument maintains that it is upon the market to identify contraventions without legal meddling (Moffat, pp. 476-378). There are times when the law has to catch up because of significant surges of technology. It is a common occurrence that the needed change may be at a significantly slower rate than what is required. It

Working in groups Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Working in groups - Assignment Example Working in groups can be powerful because the group can provide more experiences, insight and ideas than most individuals can create on their own. Multiple points of view and a variety of talents make working in groups a very productive experience. Instead of spending time tracking down information about the task, it is very possible that an individual on the team already has knowledge about it. Cooperative learning also allows a sharing of the work load that can be divided among the members according to their talent or preference. There are some real drawbacks about group work. One possibility is the danger of having group members that are lazy or unreliable. Having a team member that refuses to take on a fair share of the work or never produces their work on time or can derail the project for everyone. What usually happens is everyone else picks up the slack for this person. This rewards the individual for being slothful because they receive the same grade as everyone else. Another problem with cooperative learning is a strong personality can come to dominate the group. Some people have a strong desire to control others. Working with people like this in a group can be very discouraging. This was my experience in high school. By the end of the project, we all felt bullied by the assigned team leader. Our work was of poor quality and we nearly failed the assignment because we were all

Comparison of cultural contact between 2 books, black robe(brian Essay

Comparison of cultural contact between 2 books, black robe(brian moore) & things fall apart(chinua achebe) - Essay Example Initially planned as journey against hunger, exhaustion and cold, the mission ends up fueled by suspicious beliefs and hostility provoked in the local tribes. The focal moment and central theme in Black Robe is the clash between two different cultures. Moore (1997) explores the complexities of utterly divergent cultures and tries to juxtapose them on the background of historical events happening at the beginning of 17th century Canada. Moore (1997) attempts to give new understandings about both cultures. For Native Indians, baptism is â€Å"water sorcery†. To pray over beads would mean to put a curse of someone. To the savages the idea to have only one God is absurd. For the Jesuits, on the other hand the Indians appear barbaric and uncontrollable. Their religion is surrounded with sorcerers and superstitions. The way they observe and follow their customs are bloodthirsty. What Moore (1997) reveals in front of the reader is two cultures that are diametrically different. The Indian way of life and religion is frightenly dissimilar to the Western culture of Laforgue. The attempts from both sides to reach out for each other are direct ed by mutual incomprehension. Overcoming to grasp the different thinking and customs of each culture is the theme of the whole novel. The language barrier is not so difficult an obstacle than to understand the other. Both cultures test their beliefs in their contact of the contrasting culture. Moore (1997) best describes this in the Introduction of the novel: The Indian belief in a world of night and in the power of dreams clashed with the Jesuits preachments of Christianity and a paradise after death.   This novel is an attempt to show that each of these beliefs inspired in the other fear, hostility, and despair, which later would result in the destruction and abandonment of the Jesuit missions, and the conquest of the Huron people by the Iroquois, their deadly enemy. Things Fall Apart, is an African

Strategic thought and its practice Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Strategic thought and its practice - Essay Example Examples of this include a shift from retail trading into chain store, from single product into diversification or from supplier to manufacturer. A new strategic thought could also be a response to the changes or expansion in the market of the given business. Where there is change or expansion of market, the business should ensure that its new strategy that will enable it respond to the demands, needs and preferences of this market. Changes within an organization not only revolve around its business strategies but also its governance. Changes taking place within the leadership or governance of an organization either make it more or less effective in achieving its business goals and implementing its business strategies. Young (2010, p154) concurs with this by stating that the emergent patterns of governance affect the effectiveness of a business regime and this is important for solving problems in its business environment. This implies that if the changes in the organization are makin g its more effective in implementing business strategies, the leaders of the organization are in a position to develop complex business strategies meant to achieve a higher competitive advantage for the business. For example, such a business could formulate a strategy for penetrating into international markets, expanding the product base for its local markets or formulate new and more productive work strategies. Industry conditions Industry conditions describe the nature of the business environment an organization operates in. It includes the characteristics of its customers, number of competitors and power of the organization verses that of its competitors. Ohmae (1982, pp 47)... The researcher states that the success of an organization depends on the level upon which it achieves its main goal and various sub-goals. This requires that an organization formulate strategies for attaining its goal and sub-goals. Strategy simply put, refers to an action plan specifically designed to achieve a certain goal. Petraf explains that a strategy provides a comprehensive way of pursuing economic ends by providing a long-term scope and direction through which an organization configures its scarce resources in the challenging environment. This is to say that a strategy sets a direction for focusing efforts. This way, a strategy enables an organization to achieve a business advantage by meeting the needs of its market or various markets and to fulfil the expectations of stakeholders. It should be noted that an organisation cannot depend on one strategy all its lifetime. Rather, there are conditions that stimulate or necessitate change in strategic thought over time and the ne ed for strategy implementation in order to achieve the new goals of the business, and to facilitate the realisation of the organization’s mission. This means that conditions of strategic thought and practice are of great interest to the management of every organization, state, and group of workers. Strategic thought and its practice is of great importance for any business that is aiming to thrive and profit from it its current and diverse socio, economic and political environments.

Employment Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words - 3

Employment Law - Essay Example By enacting the ERA, the government deemed employers should be able to negotiate provisions with workers that allow them to meet the needs of their customers. Businesses need to be able to adjust to changes.   The ERA structure is intended to aid employers by allowing different types of employment relationships that suit the needs of employers.   Enacting this flexibility should enable businesses to become more competitive in national and international markets.   At the same time, according to the Department of Trade, the Act should translate to a variety of working arrangements enabling more people to participate in work suitable to their individual circumstances2.By virtue of the ERA, employees have several rights not enjoyed by atypical workers.   These include the ability to take leave for a wide variety of personal reasons, guaranteed wage payments, the right to protection of wages in the event of an employer’s insolvency, to seek representation, and to receive a written statement of dismissal among many others benefits.   Temporary workers may be regarded as employees under certain conditions and thus qualified for provisions contained within the ERA.   Employers fill long term assignments through employment agencies.   When a worker employs through an agency for one company for more than a year, the question has arisen whether the worker is considered an employee and if so, who is the employer, the agency or the company (end-user)? These workers, under contract with a hiring agency, may be considered independent contractors.

Thesis Exercises Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Thesis Exercises - Assignment Example Since our real world is not single sex, it’s hard for those students who go to single sex school to adapt themselves into society. For instance a female might be afraid of conversation with other guys, or guys might not be able to ask girls on dates, which is horrible in my perspective. Therefore, same sex schools are not a good option. I should take pride in my work. It because a lot of people will judge me with the quality of my work. Doing quality consistent quality work will become a good habit helping me become successful in the future for constantly doing quality work. Volunteering is important. Having many volunteers help society and other people during their time of need making it easier for them to recover. By having many volunteers around, it makes our society more compassionate People should watch less TV. Excessive watching of TV is bad idea because it is a distraction to study. If we will watch less TV, this would mean we will have more time for studying and other more productive activities. People who responsible should be the ones allowed to drive. Being responsibility is being determined by passing the driving test which should be done both in written and practical exam. This would eliminate the irresponsible drivers and would result to fewer accidents on the

Managing Change Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Managing Change - Research Paper Example This is because different employees in an organization have different perspectives and standpoints regarding the best change management strategy. They all believe their own recommendations to be the best possible strategy for the organization (Kotter, 2007). Therefore, choosing the best strategy from all the alternatives suggested can be a very difficult job. Moreover, applying change management processes in culturally diverse background become even tougher considering the fact that the acceptance, tolerance and response to change management strategies vary across different cultures (Dionne, et al., 2002). That is why managers need to have the ability to enforce change and at the same time make sure that the cultural integrity at their organization is sustained. Furthermore, change management is also required while companies consider expanding their business into unfamiliar territories (Todnem and Burnes, 2011). This is where managers have to be extremely adaptive when enforcing any form of change. Successful execution of change management strategies ensures organizational success and it requires managers to be highly aware of their operational environment (Hendry and Pettigrew, 2008). It is with regards to this fact that the researcher will attempt to understand the change management process in Burger King. The fundamental purpose of this study is to see how managers of Burger King have expanded the world’s second largest burger food service retail into the Gulf Region. The study will be conducted on the basis of two perspectives of change management which are the cultural approach to change management and the adaptation versus standardization strategy related to change management. An analysis of such scale will allow the researcher to gauge the importance of change management in the contemporary business environment. The researcher will also be evaluating the success achieved by Burger King after expanding into the Gulf Region through the change

Questions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 5

Questions - Essay Example He was interested by the fact that the species were different. He concluded that the species were different because they dwelled in different environments The concept of natural selection explains how species evolves and genes are passed from generation to the next. Darwin argues that a species can develop a functional advantage in that the species grows wing and learn to fly. He asserts that the offspring will inherit that advantage and pass it on to the offsprings. On the other hand, those who are disadvantaged but members of the same species will gradually die and live the superior members of the same species. Species preserve the functional advantage and that help the species to compete in the harsh environment. Darwin’s explanation of the origin of species in 1859 was criticized by Christians because they believed in God’s creation for six days. The natural selection was received with hostility because his ideas were not with alignment with biblical descriptions on how Adam and Eve were created. In addition, after the arrival of Darwin’s theory, scientists conflicted and they did not support the idea of evolution. A vector is a vehicle that transfers genetic materials to a target cell. The significance of vectors is to pass on the genes to the intended cell. For evolution to take place there has to be passage of genetic materials from one species to the other. Hence the vector facilitates the movement of biological traits from one generation to the other. Equilibrium is a principle that explains that genes remain the same from one generation to the other without any disturbing factor. If the situation remains constant then there will be evolution stability. However this can be affected by forces such as mutations, natural selection, non random mating, genetic drift and gene flow. Isolation can promote genetic divergence through mechanisms such as mutation, genetic drift and natural selection. Allopathic speciation is a

Truman Doctrines Essay Example for Free

Truman Doctrines Essay During the Cold War, most U. S. presidents came up with policies also known as â€Å"doctrines† to help remember who stood for what. In this report I will be summarizing a situation that required U. S. diplomatic efforts during President Harry Truman time; explicate the diplomatic doctrine the president followed; describing the effects of this diplomatic efforts for the U. S. and other countries; assess the advantages and disadvantages of the particular doctrine that followed. In February 1947, the British government informed the United States that it could no longer furnish the economic and military assistance it had been providing to Greece and Turkey since the end of WWII. The Truman administration believed that both nations were threatened by communism and it jumped at the chance to take a tough stand against the Soviet Union. In Greece, force has been battling the Greek royal government since the end of WWII. In Turkey, the Soviets were demanding some manner of control over the Dardanelles, territory from which Turkey was able to dominate the strategies waterways from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean. On March 12, 1947 Truman appear before a group of Congress to make his case. He declared the world faced a chance in the years to come. Nations could adapt a way of life â€Å"based upon the will of the majority† and minority forcibly imposed upon the majority. † He proposed the Truman Doctrine which provided political, military, and economic assistance to all democratic nations under threat from external or internal authoritarian forces. It effectively reoriented U. S. foreign policy, away from its usual standpoint of withdrawal from regional conflicts not directly involving the U.  S. , to one of possible intervention in far away conflicts. He began by outlining the situation in Greece and Turkey, â€Å"Assistance is imperative if Greece is to survive as a free nation, they must have assistance if it is to become a self-sufficient and self-respecting democracy. † Greece and Turkey will fall to communism without help. Truman requested that Congress provide $400 million worth of aid to both Greece and Turkey to support the dispatch of American civilian and military personnel and equipment to the region. Congress granted it. This became known as the Military Assistance Program. It ultimately led to NATO. Many historians say the Truman Doctrine marked the American policy of â€Å"containment. † The most famous passage from Truman’s speech: â€Å"I believe that it must be the policy of the U. S. to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressure. † They ideas of this speech informed the communism that they can keep what it had got but Truman would not let it grow anymore. Houghton Mifflin says â€Å"that Truman Doctrine expanded the nation’s role in checking the spread of communism. † This interpretation basically presumes that the U. S. was in the right. As a result of Truman’s presentation of the global threat of Communism led to an anti-Communist Hysteria which was to end in the â€Å"Red Scare† of the 1950s. It also convinced the Soviets in Russia that Americas was a threat to Soviets Communism, and it substantially provoked the Cold War for the 30 years.

LNG Markets and Carriers

LNG Markets and Carriers LNG Ship Market Natural gas is a hydrocarbon gas mixture consisting mainly of methane, which is used as an energy source for many applications, such as electricity generation, heating and transportation. It can be considered the cleanest of all fossil fuels, producing up to 29% less CO2 per Joule than oil, and minimal amounts of sulphur (1). Combined with its relatively low price and high energy content per weight, natural gas could have been a viable energy solution many decades ago, but its widespread use was hindered by the difficulty to store and transport it. Nowadays, its majority is transported through pipelines and as liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) by shipment (around 27%). LNG is natural gas that has been converted to liquid form for ease of storage and transport, requiring only about 1/600 of its volume in gaseous state. LNG transportation by ships is used particularly when geographical constraints deem pipeline use unfeasible. An aspect that has held back LNG, and by extension natural gas us e, is the very high capital costs associated with the LNG supply chain (gas exploration, liquefaction, transportation and regasification) (2). These required high investments, mandated security of LNG supply and led to long term cooperation between buyers and sellers. This resulted in a highly structured LNG market, with rigid contracts of 20 years or more and very few vessels left spare for use in spot trade. This initial market profile could be characterized as an oligopoly, formed by large state-controlled or regulated oil and gas companies and a small number of independent ship owners. A bad period for the LNG market were the 1980s, where energy prices were high and the demand was low. At the time of the markets revival (early 1990s) the LNG trade was firmly divided between the Atlantic Basin and Asia Pacific markets. However after the 1990s, with additional liquefaction plants being built in exporting countries and cost reductions in all segments of the supply chain, a surplus of LNG available was created and a lot of new investments were triggered. This led to gradual liberation of the gas market with short term contracts also being signed. However, long term contracts, also known as SPAs (Sale and Purchase Agreements) still dominate the market, as no supplier undertakes a new project without contracting and securing its outlet first. At the moment spot rates represent up to 15% of the total market, with indications that contracts are increasingly becoming more flexible in volumes and price mechanisms (3). The market is also increasingly international, with another major export area being the Middle East. As seen in Figures 1 and 2, Qatar is nowadays the biggest LNG exporting country, with a share of over 25% of world exports. The main importing countries are Japan, Korea, Taiwan, China, Spain, UK and Italy all of which are either countries in need of large energy amounts, or face domestic energy supply shortages (4). Japan in particular, after the Fukus hima Daiichi nuclear disaster became an even larger importer, accounting for a third of world LNG imports. China is expected to dramatically increase its LNG imports in order to achieve its goal of decreasing air pollution by doubling natural gas usage for power by 2016 and relying less on coal for energy production (5).ÂÂ   Europe on the other hand has seen a decrease in LNG importing in recent years, mainly due to the recent financial crisis and volatile market, and also because of the drop in spot rates and the fact that Asian and American countries are paying more for gas. The outlook on future LNG trade is positive however, as seen in Figure 3 (6), especially when considering the steady and linear LNG market increase up to the late 90s (Figure 4) (7). In terms of the LNG carrier fleet, there are around 380 LNG vessels operating today, with 94 new buildings scheduled for delivery until 2017 (8). In Figure 5, it can be observed that the average capacity of LNG carriers on or der is between 150.000 160.000 m3 while the average operating LNG carrier has a size between 120.000 140.000ÂÂ   m3. This indicates a trend of increasing vessel sizes, in line with what is happening to other merchant shipping markets in recent years. LNG Ship Structures The most striking difference between LNG carriers and typical tankers is the complex cargo containment and handling systems found on LNG ships. These serve several purposes. They seal the LNG in a positive pressure, gas tight compartment to avoid mixing with air;ÂÂ   insulate it from outside heat in order to keep the entire cargo amount at -162 oC, thus minimizing boil-off gas, and also prevent this very low temperature from reaching the hull structure and cause steel brittleness (9). LNG vessels normally have between four and six cargo tanks which are either independent, self-supporting tanks or membrane-type tanks. By default all LNG ships are double hull vessels. Self-supporting tanks are independent to the ship hull and are free to thermally expand and contract. They are also easy to inspect for leakage, but on the downside they do not make efficient use of space (10). The tank type that is typically used on LNG carriers is the Type B independent tank, which is usually spher ical (Figure 6). This design, also known as the Kvaerner-Moss System, initially used storage tanks made of 9% nickel-steel, but these were quickly replaced by aluminium tanks which are more resilient to thermal and mechanical stresses are and easier to form. The tanks feature an equatorial ring from which they suspend, and therefore the majority of mechanical and thermal stresses are exerted on that area (11) . Because of their enhanced design, Type B tanks only require a partial secondary barrier in the form of a dip tray. The hold space is normally filled with dry inert gas; however dry air can also be used if the system is capable of providing inert gas to the area in a case of case leakage. A protective steel dome covers the primary barrier above deck level and insulation is applied to the outside of the tank (12). Insulation materials are typically glass, wool, vapour permeable aluminium foil and a number of expansion foam types. Type B tanks can also have a prismatic shape to maximise volumetric efficiency. The other major tank type is the membrane-type tank, with the No.96 System from Gaz Transport and the Mk III System from Technigaz being the main two sub categories. Both types utilize a thin and flexible primary membrane (0.7 1.5mm) which is in contact with the cargo and a secondary barrier on the outside. The pressure is applied on the membrane from both the cargo on the inside and the insulation on the outside, and the entire arrangement rests on the ships structure, forming an integral part of it. The Gaz Transport 96 system utilizes 0.7 mm thick invar (36% nickel, 0.2% carbon steel alloy) for both the primary and the secondary layer, with boxes filled with perlite used as insulation in between the membranes and in between the secondary membrane and the vessels structure. The entire construction leans on each consecutive layer and finally on the ships structure (Figure 7). Invar is used primarily because of its low coefficient of thermal expansio n which makes the use of expansion boxes or corrugations unnecessary. On the other hand, the Mk III system from Technigaz features a primary stainless steel barrier of 1.2mm in thickness, with corrugations which enable thermal expansion and contraction. Polyurethane foam reinforced with fiberglass is used as insulation, while the second membrane is a simpler and cheaper one, made of triplex, a type of vapour permissible plastic mass. Both systems permit a boil-off of up to 0.15% but in reality this is much less (12). In 1994 Tehnigaz and Gaz Transport merged and their respective systems since bore a GTT suffix in their names. GTT also developed a third membrane containment system for LNG carriers named Combine System One (CSO), which combines elements from both designs (11). Propulsion Systems using LNG as Fuel The use of LNG as a propulsion fuel is a relatively new trend for non-LNG carrier vessels. The reason for considering LNG as a fuel for tankers, bulk carriers and ferries is mainly because it is much more environmentally friendly when compared to other types of fuel such as heavy fuel oil and marine diesel oil. This is especially important for vessels operating in emission controlled areas (ECAs), and with future IMO plans of expanding these areas, many ship operators are considering alternative solutions. The option of using LNG offers the benefit of almost sulphur-free emissions, and therefore access to ECAs, at a price much lower than that of low sulphur heavy fuel oil. However, LNG bunkering stations are not very widespread, and the high investment required for propulsion and fuel handling systems is also a deterring factor. Nevertheless, LNG has been used as a fuel on LNG tankers ever since 1964 (13). Early systems utilised steam turbines for propulsion, which were powered by st eam produced in boilers that operated by burning the boil-off gas from the cargo tanks. Even though this propulsion type is not very efficient (about 28%), the ability to utilise cargo which would otherwise just be disposed of provided major economic advantages to operators. This type of propulsion system is still found in the majority of LNG carriers up to this day. Nowadays however, because of the relatively high price of natural gas, re-liquefaction plants are starting to be utilised, in order to capture and re-store boil off gas, and slow speed diesel engines burning heavy fuel oil are used for propulsion. This results in significant fuel savings (slow speed diesels are around 50% efficient) but does not solve the ever growing emission problem. Therefore, dual fuel engines are also starting to be used in the industry. These are primarily diesel engines working on the same principle, with the difference that gas is also introduced with air in the induction stroke, and is burned t ogether with diesel fuel when that is injected at the end of the compression stroke. The result is much cleaner emissions and fuel savings. Duel fuel engines can either be direct drive or coupled to generators for electric propulsion. For direct drive systems slow speed dual fuel engines can be used but medium speed engines for electric propulsion are the predominant choice at the moment. Dual fuel gas turbines can also be used for that matter but are not widely utilised on LNG carriers (14). In Figure 9, a distribution of propulsion systems for new LNG carriers on order can be seen. References 1. Natural Gas and the Environment. s.l. : NaturalGas.org. 2. LNG shipping business versus dry cargo shipping a comparative study. S.Kamalakannan and Dr.B.Madhavan. 2012, ZENITH International Journal of Business Economics Management Research. 3. History, trends and prospects for LNG shipping. Leroy, Paul-Albert. Athens : Barry Rogliano Salles, 2012. 4. White, Bill. Alaka Natural Gas Transportation Projects. [Online] 6 September 2011. [Cited: 12 March 2014.] http://www.arcticgas.gov/global-LNG-rapid-growth-overestimated-demand-excess-capacity. 5. Cunningham, Nick. The Diplomat. [Online] 5 December 2013. [Cited: 12 March 2014.] http://thediplomat.com/2013/12/china-increases-purchases-of-lng-on-spot-market/. 6. Kurt Oswald, Joerg Doerler, Akshat Seth. ATKerney. [Online] December 2011. [Cited: 12 March 2014.] http://www.atkearney.com/paper/-/asset_publisher/dVxv4Hz2h8bS/content/the-future-of-the-european-gas-supply/10192. 7. White, Bill. Alaska Natural Gas Transportation Project. [Online] 13 August 2013. [Cited: 12 March 2014.] http://www.arcticgas.gov/alaska-lng-could-have-right-heat-content-asia-buyers. 8. Almeida, Rob. Whos Building LNG Carriers? gCaptain. [Online] 22 April 2013. [Cited: 12 March 2014.] http://gcaptain.com/whos-building-carriers/. 9. Michael D. Tusiani, Gordon Shearer. LNG: A Nontechnical Guide. Tulsa, Oklahoma : PennWell Corporation, 2007. 10. Zhou, Prof. Peilin. NM952/21525 Advanced Marine Engineering course notes. Glasgow : s.n., 2014. 11. Sacchi, Alan. Types of LNG Carriers. Hrvatsko pomorsko dobro. [Online] [Cited: 13 March 2014.] http://www.pomorskodobro.com/en/types-of-lng-carriers.html. 12. International Safety Guide for Inland Navigation Tank-barges and Terminals. Types of Gas Carriers. ISGINTT. [Online] 2010. [Cited: 13 March 2014.] http://www.isgintt.org/files/Chapter_33en_isgintt_062010.pdf. 13. MAN Diesel and Turbo. Propulsion Trends in LNG Carriers. MAN. [Online] [Cited: 13 March 2014.] http://www.mandiesel.com/files/news/filesof8074/5510-0035-01ppr.pdf. 14. Wartsila. LNG the Pros Cons. Wartsila. [Online] June 2012. [Cited: 13 March 2014.] http://www.wartsila.com/en/lng-the-pros-and-cons. Appendix Figure 1: Main LNG Exporting Countries in 2010 (4) Figure 2: Main LNG Importing Countries in 2010 (4) Figure 3: Projected LNG demand by region until 2020 (6) Figure 4: LNG demand up to 2012 (7) Figure 5: LNG Carrier New Build by Size Figure 6: Self-supporting spherical Type B tank (12) Figure 7: GT 96 Membrane Containment System (12) Figure 8: GT Mk III Membrane Containment System (12) Figure 9:ÂÂ   Distribution of propulsion systems of LNG fleet on order (13)

Effect of Stigma on Mental Health

Effect of Stigma on Mental Health From thousands of years, debate has been going on among practitioners how to treat mental illness. Several modifications have been done from burning, chaining, locking them in homes and drilling their heads to unchaining and treating them like humans (Foerschner, 2010). But the nurses who work in mental health setting still face the problems in delivering care in a stigma free environment in order to promote the health of mentally ill patients (Stuart, 2009). For such mentally ill clients we need to accept their behavior rather than stigmatization (Angermeyer Matschinger, 2003). Stigma is a â€Å"collection of negative attitudes, beliefs, thoughts, and behaviors that influence the individual, or the general public, to fear, reject, avoid, be prejudiced, and discriminate people† (Gary, 2005). The reason behind selection of this topic is that to accepting mentally ill patient with the intention of promoting their health. In West, stigma to mental illness is properly recognized, equally managed and prevented. Yet, in Eastern cultures, being mentally ill is still seen as a mark of dishonor for family, mental health patients are still stigmatized and socially isolated and supposed as being haunted by evil spirit or jinn (Naeem, Ayub, Javed, Irfan, Haral Kingdon, 2006). Additionally, mental health is considered to be the most avoided field in Pakistan due to the stigma attached to it (Qasim, 2012). Not so long I have being in psychiatric setting where we all were sitting in cafà © having our break together, suddenly a man in brown traditional clothes with leather jacket wearing black goggles ask one of our colleague if he want some tea? he answered â€Å"no†, that person sat on nearby table and ask waiter to bring one zinger burger. While noting his getup which was not according to weather and unusual behavior, my colleague abruptly ask our faculty â€Å"Ma’am is he mad or what? After hearing those words that patient suddenly pushes his chair and leaves the cafà ©.† This is how people unintentionally target psychiatric patient by hitting their self-esteem rather accepting them as a part of society and understand there awkward behavior as a part of their illness. In a society stigma marks a boundary between â€Å"normal† and â€Å"outsider,† and between â€Å"us† and â€Å"them† (Link Phelan, 2001). Question is how we can break this boundary of discrimination which is causing barrier to recovery of mentally ill clients? The case scenario will now be analyzed on a social cognitive model explains how public and self stigma are formed and maintained. There are 3 components that structure this model are: stereotype, prejudice, and discrimination. Social psychologists see stereotypes as information learned by society (Augoustinos, Ahrens, Innes, 1994; Esses, Haddock, Zanna, 1994; Hilton von Hippel, 1996; Judd Park, 1993; Krueger, 1996; Mullen, Rozell, Johnson, 1996). Without thinking we quickly create expectation and impression of people who fit in to a stereotyped group, (Hamilton Sherman, 1994) just like my colleague label that person as ‘mad’. Prejudice endorse people may show a negative reactions by supporting their learned negative stereotype. (Devine, 1988, 1989, 1995; Hilton von Hippel, 1996; Krueger, 1996). Prejudice may lead to discriminatory behavior (Weiner, 1995) just like my colleague discriminate that person as one who is not following societal norms and discriminate his behavior from normal to abnormal (for social cognitive model refer appendix fig 1.). Being stigmatized has several harmful effects on the individual, the immediate family and the community too. At first in the name of honor or embarrassment, the individual and family doesn’t reach the health care provider for treatment options. It also cause non-adherence to effective treatment regimen. Self stigma is another effect resulting in low self esteem, negative self perception and self care when a person internalizes the discriminatory behavior and societal stigmatizing attitude. Lastly stigma has also affects the attitude of health care provider. Study has shown that in hospital setting nurses display punishing attitude and use unacceptable manner for treating them, like unnecessarily retraining them (Pinto-Foltz Logsdon, 2009). To reduce stigma and discrimination against people with mental health disorders the largest ever program was launched in England on Jan 21, 2009, called Time to Change. By referring social cognitive model this program aims to show that change is possible that would bring hope to people who are deleteriously exhausted by discrimination (refer appendix fig 2.) (Henderson Thornicroft). A few procedures for stigma decrease are accounted in the literature. These interventions and techniques might be used at diverse levels: the intrapersonal, interpersonal, organizational/institutional, group, and governmental/structural (McLeroy et al, 1988; Richard et al, 1996). Firstly, intrapersonal level has always remained a primary focus to change the behavior of an individual. Interventions are done to change the individual’s knowledge, behavior, attitude, self concept, enhancing self esteem, coping skills, strengthening, and financial support. We can carry out these interventions via indiv idual counseling or cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and Self help advocacy and support groups (Heijnders Van Der Meij, 2006). Secondly, intervention at interpersonal level deals with the impact of social gathering and social support on the health of mentally ill client. The interpersonal environment of the patient includes their family, friends and work environment. They intend to build connections between patient and his/her interpersonal environment in order to restore or promote their health. This could be carry out through Care and support by family, Home care teams, and Community-based rehabilitation (Heijnders Van Der Meij, 2006). Furthermore, the organizational level also being used in order to change the perception of public towards stigma and its effect on individual. This could be accomplished through training programs and institutional changes which increase knowledge of the disease and effect of stigma on the lives of mentally ill clients (Heijnders Van Der Meij, 2 006). Additionally stigma reduction can be intervene at community level whose aim is to increase knowledge about mental illness and stigma attached to it. For stigma reduction campaign, education is often used as a first step and it may combine with the other strategies as well. Educational interventions may include presentations, discussions, simulations, audiotapes, and movies, focusing specific populations (Heijnders Van Der Meij, 2006). Lastly, on governmental level work can be carried out in order to structure such policy which aims to protect the rights of the people who are suffering from stigmatizing illness (Heijnders Van Der Meij, 2006). The World Health Organization (WHO) argued that ‘policies on discrimination, access to prevention and care, confidentiality of care and individual’s rights can make a significant impact’ (2002). In Conclusion it is recommended that client’s dignity and safety should remain paramount at all times. To break the chain of stigma the social cognitive model should be vigilantly applied in psychiatric setting. Patient-centred approach is required, which starts with intrapersonal level, which gives power to affected person to development self esteem and stigma reduction related programs at other levels. â€Å"There is nothing either good or bad, but thinking makes it so† (Shakespeare, Hamlet, Act 2 Scene 2).

Robert Frost: Iceman for the Ages :: essays research papers

Robert Frost is often known as one of the greatest American poets of all time. Although he is sometimes remembered as hateful and mean spirited, his life was filled with highs and lows. These differentiating periods are represented throughout his poetry. Frost once said that â€Å"A poem begins in delight, and ends in wisdom.† As can be seen, this quote not only reflected his poetry, but his life. Though many years of his life were troubled by misfortune, Frost always seemed to persevere. Robert Frost was a talented, thoughtful poet whose life was filled with complexity and tragedy (brainyquote.com). Robert Lee Frost began life in San Francisco on March 26, 1874. For an unknown reason, Frost believed for years that he was actually born in 1875. When Frost’s father died in 1885 his mother decided to move closer to her wealthy parents in Massachusetts. In California, Frost had dropped out of kindergarten after one day, and upon returning to the first grade, also dropped out. This was no deterrent on Frost to attend college. He was accepted to Harvard but instead attended Dartmouth because of his financial situation. Even though Frost found the school to be anything but challenging, he would not finish his time at Dartmouth, nor earn any formal degree in a school (Bengtsson). He once said of schooling that â€Å"Education is hanging around until you’ve caught on.† Interestingly enough, Robert Frost held several postions at credible schools, including Amherst and Harvard. Also, Frost was awarded an incredible amount of honorary degrees from Berkley to Yale (Parin i 59). Frosts careers also ranged from editing for Henry Holt to raising poultry on his Derry, New Hampshire farm. Robert Frost is undoubtedly gifted when it comes to his poetry, but not all aspects of his life were so easy. One of the most troubling areas in Frost’s life was his family. He held a long term engagement to his wife Elinor, whom he pleaded to marry. Also, his children were plagued with birth defects, terminal illness, and emotional instability. The Frosts lost four of their children at an early age, including daughter Elinor Bettina who died three days after birth. In 1938, after months of deteriorating health, Frost’s wife Elinor died of heart failure. Frost was so shaken that he collapsed and could not attend the memorial services. Later, in 1940, Frost was utterly disturbed by his son Carol’s suicide.

Free Essays on A Dolls House: An Essay :: Dolls House essays

A Doll House A Doll House was one of Henrik Ibsen's most controversial plays. He wrote this realistic play in 1879. Ibsen's writing style of realism was clearly shown in this play. This play was controversial at the time it was written, shocking conservative readers. But, at the same time, the play served as a rallying point for supporters of a drama with different ideas. Towards the end of the nineteenth century, the Art Nouveau style became an international movement. For the first time in decorative arts history there was a simultaneous movement throughout Europe and America. Art Nouveau brought the finest designers and craftsmen together in order to design buildings, furniture, wallpaper, fabrics, ceramics, metalwork and glasswork. Art Nouveau was considered more than a style, it was a philosophy. From this philosophy carefully designed articles for the home were designed intended to fit into the scheme of the whole Art Nouveau style. Line was the most important aspect of the Art Nouveau period. Art Nouveau was a rebellion against machine made articles of the 19th century that were copies of past designs. Art Nouveau was also a reaction against the old Victorian tradition. Art Nouveau designers borrowed from the past but because of the emphasis on line and adaptation of natural forms to design. Art Nouveau is easily distinguishable from any other p eriod in decorative arts. In conjunction with Art Nouveau style, the Edwardian style of costume and dress was also implemented during this time period. The Edwardian style embodied both extravagance and pageantry. A Doll House was a play written well ahead of its time. This play was written in a time when it was considered an outrage for a woman such as Nora not only to display a mind of her own, but also to leave her husband in order to obtain her freedom. This play relates to the Art Nouveau and Edwardian period because just as the furniture and clothing were considered decorative pieces, so were women. Women were expected only to tend to the husband's and children's needs. Women were not supposed to do anything without first consulting the husband and certainly never do anything without his prior knowledge and approval. Women were expected to be at home and always looking presentable for their husbands. *Please note all visual elements for this term paper can be viewed at the conclusion of this project.

Ideas on “Behaviour of Fish in an Egyptian Tea Garden” Essay

‘Behaviour of Fish in an Egyptian Tea Garden’, written by Keith Douglas is a poem about the connection between man and woman. Describing and interpreting the relationship between the genders sense of hierarchy, beauty and character. This could be analysed in the strange title; the fish (man) is mesmerised by the Garden’s (woman) setting, because it is metaphorically abnormal yet unusually attractive. This draws the fish in, as seen by the fish’s ‘behaviour’. Douglas makes a good example of imagery, using it to further expand the continuous metaphor in a peculiar way. By using the vastness of the sea, filled with fish of all backgrounds, Douglas makes the poem seem quite vast but also profoundly multicultural and universal. The typicality of it all is that the fish’s all have a common desire, a sexual desire to be more accurate. This accumulation of â€Å"cruel wish for love† from the flock of fish; towards a white stone which radiates beauty, makes the poem seem slightly immoral because of the way she â€Å"slyly† draws them in with their undeniable lust. The way Douglas structures each stanza adds to the connotation behind the fish, such as the idea of how universal the fish’s behaviour and thinking patterns are (lust/love). Resulting in a whole flock of fish coming over to look at her beauty. For example in some of the stanzas (such as three, four and five) we can see that Douglas introduces a new type of fish/man for each stanza showing how men are universally ‘all’ the same despite their backgrounds. The length of the stanzas being the same throughout could also represent the typicality of men, meaning it is common throughout, almost predicted. Although there are metaphors throughout this poem, the enjambment is also an important technique in this poem because in each stanza it is heavily used. In the quote â€Å"The fish swim off on business: and she sits alone at the table† there is a new line between the two clauses further adding to the unpredictability of the woman but it also shows how short lived ‘beauty’ is, either the woman has grown old or she has stopped flaunting her body. Furthermore the reason why enjambment adds to the unpredictability is because on every line Douglass uses it to delay the intention of emotion to show how surprised the fish are towards this stone/woman. In the last stanza we can see situational irony; that the escalation of attraction between all the men (thinking they would get something), gets turned down by the lady, forcing them to go back to being normal again. This is because the â€Å"ice-cream is finished†, in other words she has stopped teasing and flaunting her body. Lastly this leaves her with only the option of having a stable and tedious life with a boring rich man (â€Å"collector†), who can tend to her want/needs of money. Furthermore the woman did not find her partner for love because all the men were in a crazy lust for her body, not taking in account for her personality behind the scene. To conclude we can see that Keith Douglas main technique is by continuously comparing his ideas using metaphors throughout the poem. One figure that came to mind when writing this essay was Marilyn Monroe, because in her era she had so much attraction, maybe because society wasn’t used to such beauty, that people (men in general) hyped her ‘level’ of attraction.

Trojan Horse

Over the last twenty years, a technological revolution has occurred as computers are now an essential element of today's society. Large computers are used to track reservations for the airline industry, process billions of dollars for banks, manufacture products for industry, and conduct major transactions for businesses because more and more people now have computers at home and at the office. People commit computer crimes because of society's declining ethical standards more than any economic need. According to experts, gender is the only bias. The profile of today's non-professional thieves crosses all races, age groups and economic strata. Computer criminals tend to be relatively honest and in a position of trust: few would do anything to harm another human, and most do not consider their crime to be truly dishonest. Most are males: women have tended to be accomplices, though of late they are becoming more aggressive. Computer Criminals tend to usually be â€Å"between the ages of 14-30, they are usually bright, eager, highly motivated, adventuresome, and willing to accept technical challenges. (Shannon, 16:2) â€Å"It is tempting to liken computer criminals to other criminals, ascribing characteristics somehow different from ‘normal' individuals, but that is not the case. â€Å"(Sharp, 18:3) It is believed that the computer criminal â€Å"often marches to the same drum as the potential victim but follows and unanticipated path. â€Å"(Blumenthal, 1:2) There is no actual profile of a computer criminal because they range from young teens to elders, from black to white, from short to tall. Definitions of computer crime has changed over the years as the users and misusers of computers have expanded into new areas. â€Å"When computers were first introduced into businesses, computer crime was defined simply as a form of white-collar crime committed inside a computer system. â€Å"(2600:Summer 92,p. 13) Some new terms have been added to the computer criminal vocabulary. â€Å"Trojan Horse is a hidden code put into a computer program. Logic bombs are implanted so that the perpetrator doesn't have to physically present himself or herself. † (Phrack 12,p. 3) Another form of a hidden code is â€Å"salamis. † It came from the big salami loaves sold in delis years ago. Often people would take small portions of bites that were taken out of them and then they were secretly returned to the shelves in the hopes that no one would notice them missing. (Phrack 12,p. 44) Congress has been reacting to the outbreak of computer crimes. â€Å"The U. S. House of Judiciary Committee approved a bipartisan computer crime bill that was expanded to make it a federal crime to hack into credit and other data bases protected by federal privacy statutes. (Markoff, B 13:1) This bill is generally creating several categories of federal misdemeanor felonies for unauthorized access to computers to obtain money, goods or services or classified information. This also applies to computers used by the federal government or used in interstate of foreign commerce which would cover any system accessed by interstate telecommunication systems. â€Å"Computer crime often requires more sophistications than people realize it. â€Å"(Sullivan, 40:4) Many U. S. businesses have ended up in bankruptcy court unaware that they have been victimized by disgruntled employees. American businesses wishes that the computer security nightmare would vanish like a fairy tale. Information processing has grown into a gigantic industry. â€Å"It accounted for $33 billion in services in 1983, and in 1988 it was accounted to be $88 billion. † (Blumenthal, B 1:2) All this information is vulnerable to greedy employees, nosy-teenagers and general carelessness, yet no one knows whether the sea of computer crimes is â€Å"only as big as the Gulf of Mexico or as huge as the North Atlantic. † (Blumenthal,B 1:2) Vulnerability is likely to increase in the future. And by the turn of the century, â€Å"nearly all of the software to run computers will be bought from vendors rather than developed in houses, standardized software will make theft easier. † (Carley, A 1:1) A two-year secret service investigation code-named Operation Sun-Devil, targeted companies all over the United States and led to numerous seizures. Critics of Operation Sun-Devil claim that the Secret Service and the FBI, which have almost a similar operation, have conducted unreasonable search and seizures, they disrupted the lives and livelihoods of many people, and generally conducted themselves in an unconstitutional manner. My whole life changed because of that operation. They charged me and I had to take them to court. I have to thank 2600 and Emmanuel Goldstein for publishing my story. I owe a lot to the fellow hackers and fellow hackers and the Electronic Frontier Foundation for coming up with the blunt of the legal fees so we could fight for our rights. † (Interview with Steve Jackson, fellow hacker, who was charged in operation Sun Devil) The case of Steve Jackson Games vs. Secret Service has yet to come to a verdict yet but should very soon. The secret service seized all of Steve Jackson's computer materials which he made a living on. They charged that he made games that published information on how to commit computer crimes. He was being charged with running a underground hack system. â€Å"I told them it was only a game and that I was angry and that was the way that I tell a story. I never thought Hacker [Steve Jackson's game] would cause such a problem. My biggest problem was that they seized the BBS (Bulletin Board System) and because of that I had to make drastic cuts, so we laid of eight people out of 18. If the Secret Service had just come with a subpoena we could have showed or copied every file in the building for them. (Steve Jackson Interview) Computer professionals are grappling not only with issues of free speech and civil liberties, but also with how to educate the public and the media to the difference between on-line computer experimenters. They also point out that, while the computer networks and the results are a new kind of crime, they are protected by the same laws and freedom of any real world domain. â€Å"A 14-year old boy connects his home computer to a television line, and taps into the computer at his neighborhood bank and regularly transfers money into his personnel account. â€Å"(2600:Spring 93,p. 9) On paper and on screens a popular new mythology is growing quickly in which computer criminals are the ‘Butch Cassidys' of the electronic age. â€Å"These true tales of computer capers are far from being futuristic fantasies. â€Å"(2600:Spring 93:p. 19) They are inspired by scores of real life cases. Computer crimes are not just crimes against the computer, but it is also against the theft of money, information, software, benefits and welfare and many more. â€Å"With the average damage from a computer crime amounting to about $. 5 million, sophisticated computer crimes can rock the industry. (Phrack 25,p. 6) Computer crimes can take on many forms. Swindling or stealing of money is one of the most common computer crime. An example of this kind of crime is the Well Fargo Bank that discovered an employee was using the banks computer to embezzle $21. 3 million, it is the largest U. S. electronic bank fraud on record. (Phrack 23,p. 46) Credit Card scams are also a type of computer crime. This is one that fears many people and for good reasons. A fellow computer hacker that goes by the handle of Raven is someone who uses his computer to access credit data bases. In a talk that I had with him he tried to explain what he did and how he did it. He is a very intelligent person because he gained illegal access to a credit data base and obtained the credit history of local residents. He then allegedly uses the residents names and credit information to apply for 24 Mastercards and Visa cards. He used the cards to issue himself at least 40,000 in cash from a number of automatic teller machines. He was caught once but was only withdrawing $200 and in was a minor larceny and they couldn't prove that he was the one who did the other ones so he was put on probation. I was 17 and I needed money and the people in the underground taught me many things. I would not go back and not do what I did but I would try not to get caught next time. I am the leader of HTH (High Tech Hoods) and we are currently devising other ways to make money. If it weren't for my computer my life would be nothing like it is today. â€Å"(Interview w/Raven) â€Å"Finally, one of the thefts involving the computer is the theft of computer time. Most of us don't realize this as a crime, but the congress consider this as a crime. â€Å"(Ball,V85) Everyday people are urged to use the computer but sometimes the use becomes excessive or improper or both. For example, at most colleges computer time is thought of as free-good students and faculty often computerizes mailing lists for their churches or fraternity organizations which might be written off as good public relations. But, use of the computers for private consulting projects without payment of the university is clearly improper. In business it is the similar. Management often looks the other way when employees play computer games or generate a Snoopy calendar. But, if this becomes excessive the employees is stealing work time. And computers can only process only so many tasks at once. Although considered less severe than other computer crimes such activities can represent a major business loss. â€Å"While most attention is currently being given to the criminal aspects of computer abuses, it is likely that civil action will have an equally important effect on long term security problems. â€Å"(Alexander, V119) The issue of computer crimes draw attention to the civil or liability aspects in computing environments. In the future there may tend to be more individual and class action suits. Computer crimes are fast and growing because the evolution of technology is fast, but the evolution of law is slow. While a variety of states have passed legislation relating to computer crime, the situation is a national problem that requires a national solution. Controls can be instituted within industries to prevent such crimes. Protection measures such as hardware identification, access controls software and disconnecting critical bank applications should be devised. However, computers don't commit crimes; people do. The perpetrator's best advantage is ignorance on the part of those protecting the system. Proper internal controls reduce the opportunity for fraud.